Selective chemical reactions that are orthogonal to the diverse functionality of biological systems are now recognized as important tools in chemical biology. As relative newcomers to the repertoire of synthetic chemistry, these bioorthogonal reactions have inspired new strategies for compound library synthesis, protein engineering, functional proteomics, and chemical remodeling of cell surfaces. The azide has secured a prominent role as a unique chemical handle for bioconjugation. The Staudinger ligation has been used with phosphines to tag azidosugars metabolically introduced into cellular glycoconjugates. The Staudinger ligation can be performed in living animals without physiological harm; nevertheless, the Staudinger reaction is not without liabilities. The requisite phosphines are susceptible to air oxidation and their optimization for improved water solubility and increased reaction rate has proven to be synthetically challenging.
The azide group has an alternative mode of bioorthogonal reactivity: the [3+2] cycloaddition with alkynes described by Huisgen. In its classic form, this reaction has limited applicability in biological systems due to the requirement of elevated temperatures (or pressures) for reasonable reaction rates. Sharpless and coworkers surmounted this obstacle with the development of a copper(I)-catalyzed version, termed “click chemistry,” that proceeds readily at physiological temperatures and in richly functionalized biological environs. This discovery has enabled the selective modification of virus particles, nucleic acids, and proteins from complex tissue lysates. Unfortunately, the mandatory copper catalyst is toxic to both bacterial and mammalian cells, thus precluding applications wherein the cells must remain viable. Catalyst-free Huisgen cycloadditions of alkynes activated by electron-withdrawing substituents have been reported to occur at ambient temperatures. However, these compounds undergo Michael reaction with biological nucleophiles.
There is a need in the field for additional mechanisms to modify biological molecules through a biocompatible reaction, particularly in a biological environment. The present invention addresses this need.
Literature
Huisgen (1963) Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2:565-598; Shea and Kim. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992, 114, 4846-4855; Reese and Shaw (1970) Chem. Comm. 1172-1173; Wilbur et al. Bioconj. Chem. 1996, 7, 689-702; Bistrup et al. J. Cell Biol. 1999, 145, 899-910; Saxon et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2002, 124, 14893-14902; Hang and Bertozzi. Acc. Chem. Res. 2001, 34, 727-736; Link et al. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2003, 14, 603-609; Lee et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003, 125, 9588-9589; Wang et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc, 2003, 125, 3192-3193; Kiick et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2002, 99, 19-24; Speers and Cravatt. Chem. Biol. 2004, 11, 535-546; Saxon and Bertozzi Science 2000, 287, 2007-2010; Link, A. J.; Tirrell, D. A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2003, 125, 1164-1165; Dube and Bertozzi. Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol. 2003, 7, 616-625; Vocadlo et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2003, 100, 9116-9121; Prescher et al. Nature 2004, 430, 873-877; Seo et al. J. Org. Chem. 2003, 68, 609-612; Li et al. Tetrahedron Lett. 2004, 45, 3143-3146; Wittig and Krebs. Chem. Ber. 1961, 94, 3260-3275; Meier et al. Chem. Ber. 1980, 113, 2398-2409; Turner et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1972, 95, 790-792.